## Wednesday, 28 July 2021

### Deep Learning in Mind a Gentle Introduction to Spectral Ergodicity

Preamble
 Figure: Visual understanding of spectral ergodicity.

In the post, A New Matrix Mathematics for Deep Learning : Random Matrix Theory of Deep Learning, we have outlined a new mathematical concepts that are aimed at deep learning but in general belonging to applied mathematics. Here, we dive into one of the concepts,  spectral ergodicity. We aimed at conveying what does it mean and how to compute spectral ergodicity for a set of matrices, i.e., ensemble. We will use a visual aid and verbal descriptions of steps to produce a quantitative measure of spectral ergodicity.

The idea of spectral ergodicity comes from quantum statistical physics but it is recently revived for deep learning as a new concept in order to accommodate mathematical needs of explaining and understanding the complexity of deep learning architectures.

Understanding Spectral Ergodicity

The concept of ergodicity can get quiet mathematical even for a professional mathematician.  A practical understanding of ergodicity  could lead to the law of large numbers statistically speaking. However, observed ergodicity for ensemble of matrices, i.e. over their eigenvalue spectrum, are not formally defined before in the literature, and only appeared in statistical quantum mechanics in a specialised case.  Here we do a formal definition gently.

The spectral ergodicity of snapshot of values from $M$ matrices, where they are $N \times N$ sizes,  denoted by $\Omega$, can be produce with the following steps with the aid of the Figure.
1. Compute eigenvalues of $M$ matrices separately.
2. Produce equidistance spectra of matrices out of eigenvalues, i.e., histograms with $b_{k}$ bins. Each cell in the Figure corresponds to bin in the spectra of the matrices.
3. Compute average values over each bin across  $M$ matrices.
4. Computing root mean square deviation that went to each bin from $M$ matrices from corresponding ensemble averaged value and average over $M$ and $N$. This will give a distribution, $\Omega=\Omega(b_{k})$, which represents spectral ergodicity value, think as a snapshot value of a dynamical process.
Attentive reader would notice that normally, measures of ergodicity leads to a single value, such as in spin-glasses, but here we obtain ergodicity as a measure distribution. This stems from the fact that our observable is not univariate but it is a multivariate measure over spectra of the matrix, i.e., bins in the histogram of eigenvalues.

Why spectral ergodicity important for deep learning?

The reason why this measure is so important lies in dynamics and consistency in measuring observables (no nothing to do with quantum mechanics but time and ensemble averages classically). Normally we can't measure ensemble averages. In experimental conditions the measurement we do is usually a time averaged value. This is exactly what happens when we train deep neural network, i.e, ergodicity of weight matrices. Essentially, spectral ergodicity would capture deep neural network's characteristics.
Outlook

The way we express spectral ergodicity here would only consider all layer having the same size.  One would need a more advanced computation of spectral ergodicity for more realistic architectures, which is called cascading Periodic Spectral Ergodicity measure suitable as a complexity measure for deep learning.  The computation of such measure is more involved and spectral ergodicity we cover here is the first step.

Cite this post with  Deep Learning in Mind Very Gentle Introduction to Spectral Ergodicity, Mehmet Süzen, (2021) https://science-memo.blogspot.com/2021/07/deep-learning-random-matrix-theory-spectral-ergodicity.html

## Wednesday, 21 July 2021

### A New Matrix Mathematics for Deep Learning : Random Matrix Theory of Deep Learning

Preamble

 Figure: Definition of Randomness (Compagner 1991, Delft University)
Development of deep learning systems (DLs)  increased our hopes to develop more autonomous systems. Based on the hierarchal learning of representations, deep learning defies the basic learning theory that beg the question of still rethinking generalisation. Even though DLs lacks severely the ability to reason without causal inference, they can't do that in vanilla form. However despite this limitation, they provide very rich new mathematical concepts as introduced recently. Here, we review couple of these new concepts briefly and draw attention to Random Matrix Theory's relevance in DLs and its applications in Brain networks.  These concepts in isolation are subject of applied mathematics but their interpretation and usage in deep learning architectures are demonstrated recently. In this post we provide a glossary of new concepts, that are not only theoretically interesting, they are directly practical from measuring architecture complexity to equivalance.

Random matrices can simulate deep learning architectures with spectral ergodicity

Random Matrix Theory (RMT) has origins in foundation of mathematical statistics and mathematical physics pioneered by Wishart Distribution and Dyson Circular Ensembles.  As primary ingredient of a deep learning model as a result are set of weights, or learned parameter set, manifests as matrices and they come from a learning dynamics that are used in so called in inference time. Natural consequence of this, learning these matrices can be simulated via Random matrices of spectral radius close to unity. This provides us the following, ability to make a generic statement about deep learning systems independent of
1. Network architecture (topology).
2. Learning algorithm.
3. Data sizes and type.
4. Training procedure.

Why not Hessian but Weight matrices?

There are studies taking Hessian matrix as a major object, i.e., second derivative of parameters as a function of loss of the network and associate this to random matrices. However, this approach would only covers learning algorithm properties rather than architectures inference or learning capacity. For this reason, weight matrices should be taken as a primary object in any studies of random matrix theory in deep learning.

Conclusion and outlook

In this short exposition, we tried to stimulate readers interest in exciting set of tools from RMTs for deep learning theory and practice. That is still subject of recent research with direct practical relevance. We provided glossary and reading list as well.

Papers introducing new mathematical concepts in deep learning are listed here, they come with associated Python codes for reproducing the concepts.

Earlier relevant blog posts

Citing this post

A New Matrix Mathematics of Deep Learning: Random Matrix Theory of Deep Learning : https://science-memo.blogspot.com/2021/07/random-matrix-theory-deep-learning.html Mehmet Süzen, 2021

Glossary of New Mathematical Concepts of Deep Learning

Summary of the definition of new mathematical concepts for new matrix mathematics.

Spectral Ergodicity Measure of ergodicity in spectra of a given random matrix ensemble sizes. Given set of matrices of equal size that are coming from the same ensemble, average deviation of spectral densities of individual eigenvalues over ensemble averaged eigenvalue. This mimic standard ergodicity, instead of over states of the observable, it measures ergodicity over eigenvalue densities.  $\Omega_{k}^{N}$, $k$-th eigenvalue and matrix size of $N$.

Spectral Ergodicity Distance A symmetric distance constructed with two Kullback-Leibler distances over two different size matrix ensembles, in two different direction. $D = KL(N_{a}|N_{b})+ KL(N_{b}|N_{a})$

Mixed Random Matrix Ensemble (MME) Set of matrices constructed from a random ensemble but with difference matrix sizes from N to 2, sizes determined randomly with a coefficient of mixture.

Periodic Spectral Ergodicity (PSE) A measure of Spectral ergodicity for MMEs whereby smaller matrix spectrum placed in periodic boundary conditions, i.e., cyclic list of eigenvalues, simply repeating them up to N eigenvalues.

Layer Matrices Set of learned weight matrices up to a layer in deep learning architecture. Convolutional layers mapped into a matrix, i.e. stacked up.

Cascading Periodic Spectral Ergodicity (cPSE) Measuring PSE over feedforward manner in a deep neural network.  Ensemble size is taken up-to that layer matrices.

Circular Spectral Deviation (CSD) This is a measure of fluctuations in spectral density between two ensembles.

Matrix Ensemble Equivalence If CSDs are vanishing for conjugate MMEs, they are said to be equivalent.

## Friday, 23 April 2021

### On the fallacy of replacing physical laws with machine learned inference systems

Preamble

Progress in machine learning, specifically so called deep learning, last decade was astonishingly successful in many areas from computer vision to natural language translation reaching automation close to human level performance in narrow areas, so called narrow artificial intelligence. At the same time, scientific and academic community also joined in applying deep learning in physics and in general physical sciences. If this used as an assistance to known techniques, it is a really good progress, such as drug discovery, accelerating molecular simulations or astrophysical discoveries to understand the universe. However, unfortunately it is now almost standard claim that one supposedly could replace physical laws with deep learning models: we criticise these claims in general without naming any of our colleagues or works.

Circular reasoning: Usage of data produced by known physics

 Blind monks examining an elephant (Wikipedia)

Primary fallacy on papers claiming to be able to produce a learning system that can actually produce physical laws or replace physics with a deep learning system lies in how these systems are trained. Regardless of how good they are in predictions, their primary ability is product of already known laws. They would only replicate the laws provided within datasets which are generated by physical laws.

Faulty generalisation: Computational acceleration in narrow application to replacing laws

One of the major fault in concluding that a machine learned inference system doing better than the physical law is the faulty generalisation of computational acceleration in narrow application areas. This computational acceleration can not be generalised to all parameter space while systems usually trained in certain restricted parameter space that physical laws generated data, for example solving N-body problems, or dynamics in any scale from action or Lagrangian and generating fundamental particle physics Lagrangians.

Benefits: Causality still requires scientist

The intention of this short article here aimed at showing limitations of using machine learned inference systems in discovering scientific laws: there are of course benefits of leveraging machine learning and data science techniques in physical sciences, specially accelerating simulations in narrow specialised areas, automating tasks and assisting scientist in cumbersome validations, such as searching and translating in two domains, specially in medicine and astrophysics, for example sorting images of galaxy formations. However, the results would still need a skilled physicist or scientist to really understand and form a judgment for a scientific laws or discovery, i.e., establishing causality

Conclusion : No automated physicist or automated scientific discovery

Artificial general intelligence is not founded yet and not achieved. It is for the benefit of physical sciences that researchers do not claim that they found a deep learning system that can replace physical laws in supervised or semi-supervised settings rather concentrate on applications that benefits both theoretical and applied advancement in down to earth fashion. Similarly, funding agencies should be more reasonable and avoid funding such claims.

In summary, if datasets are produced by known physical laws or mathematical principles, the new deep learning system only replicates what was already known and it is not a new knowledge, regardless how these systems can predict or behave with new predictions. Caution is advised. We can not yet replace physicists with a machine learned inference systems, actually not even radiologists are replaced, despite the impressive advancement in computer vision that produce super-human results.

## Kindly reposted to KDnuggets by Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro with the title Data science is not about data -applying Dijkstra principle to data science and enhancements.

Prelude
 Dijkstra in Zurich, 1984 (Wikipedia)

Edsger Dijkstra was a Dutch theoretical physicist turned computer scientist, and probably one of the most influential earlier pioneers in the field. He had deep insight in what is computer science and well founded notion of how should it be taught in academics. In this post we extrapolate his ideas into data science. We developed something called, Dijkstra principle for data science, that is driven by his ideas on what does computer science entails.

### Computer Science and Astronomy

Astronomy is not about telescopes. Indeed, it is about how universe works and how its constituent parts are interacting. Telescopes, either being optical or radio observations or similar detection techniques are merely tools to practice and do investigation for astronomy. A formed analogy goes into computer science as well, this is the quote from Dijkstra:
Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes.  - Edsger Dijkstra
The idea of Computer Science being not about computer is rather strange in the first instance. However, what Dijkstra had in mind is abstract mechanism and mathematical constructs that one can map real problems and solve it as a computer science problem, such as graph algorithms. Though Computer Science had a lot of subfields but its inception can be considered as rooted in applied mathematics.

Dijkstra principle for data science

By using Dijkstra's approach now we are in position to formulate a principle for data science.
Data science is no more about data than computer science is about computers. -Dijkstra principle for data science
This sounds absurd. If data science is not about data, then what is it about? Apart from definition of data science as an emergent field, as an amalgamation of multiple fields from statistics to high performance computing,  the idea that data not being the core tenant of data science implies the practice does not aim at data itself rather a higher purpose. Data is used similar to a telescope in astronomy, the purpose is to reveal the empirical truths about representations data conveys. There is no unique ways to achieve this purpose.

Conclusive Remarks

Dijkstra principle for data science would be very helpful in understanding the data science practice as not data-centric, contrary to mainstream dogma, rather as a science-centric  practice with the data being the primary tool to leverage, using multitude of techniques. Implication is that machine learning is a secondary tool on top of data in practicing data science. This attitude would help causality playing a major role shifting modern data science forward.